景觀規劃思想發展史(下)

景觀設計思想發展（上）景觀設計思想發展（下）

　　派特里克·蓋迪斯(Patrick Geddes，1854～1932)(圖37)不僅是一位哲學家、生物學家，而且還是一位規劃師。他提出了兩個重要思想，其中一個就是他所提出的“流域垂直分區”思想(圖38)。作為一名進化論者和宏觀思想家，蓋迪斯對于人的行為與周圍環境的相互關系非常感興趣，他用“流域垂直分區圖”來表達這些種關系。這個分區圖根據海拔從山頂一直延伸到海濱，在海拔最高的地區，通常是礦工工作的地方；在次高的地區分布著森林，那里是伐木工人工作的地方；再往下則是獵人和牧羊人工作的環境；靠近低地的地方則是農人和園藝工作耕耘的地方；海拔最低的海岸附近則是漁民的生活場所。蓋迪斯認為如果不遵從這種人地關系，其最后結果要么是失敗，要么就是將花費大量的能量并且冒很大的危險。蓋迪斯曾環游世界，在很多地方做過項目，尤其是在英聯邦國家。他的第二個重要思想曾影響了他所做的很多規劃，他在他所作的題為《城市開發：園林綠地和文化設施研究》的規劃中闡述了這個思想。他認為城市的最基本結構是受到園林綠地和文化設施的設計的影響而形成的(圖39)，而工業區、商業區和居住區則是次重要的。

圖37　派特里克·蓋迪斯

圖38　流域垂直分區圖

　圖39　“城市開發：園林綠地和文化設施研究”中的規劃圖

圖40　埃比尼澤·霍華德

圖41　雷蒙·溫翁

圖42　花園城市

　　19世紀，英國正處在工業化時期，埃比尼澤·霍華德(Ebenezer Howard，1850～1928)(圖40)、雷蒙·溫翁(Raymond Unwin，1863～1940)(圖41)以及其他一些人開始對當時惡劣的居住環境不滿。那時，窮人和工人階級的居住區往往是擁擠、危險且污染嚴重。許多知識分子認為人不應該居住在那樣的環境中。他們為此提出了很多主意，其中最著名的當屬霍華德提出的花園城市概念(圖42)。其主要想法是要減小主要城市規模，降低主要城市的人口密度，而以郊區環帶包圍中心城市，并將人口安置在小型的近郊區新城鎮里。所有的這些地區用高效的公共交通系統連接起來。20世紀的早期，花園城市概念是影響英美及部分歐洲國家的城市開發的最重要思想。隨著時代進步，這個思想促使了對建設近郊區的重視，今天，這個“新城市主義”再次得到體現。花園城市思想對那些生活在城市近郊區的人們來說是個很好的思想，但也造成了中心城市的衰退。
　　沃倫·H·曼寧(Warren H.Manning 1860～1938)自己開業之前，一直為F·L·奧姆斯特德工作。大約在1910年，美國開始普及用電，人們發明了最初只是用來方便描圖的透射板。1912年，曼寧首次使用它進行地圖疊加，作為一種分析手段，這與我們今天的分析方法非常相似。他將一些地圖疊加起來，以獲得新的綜合信息，最后為馬薩諸塞州比勒里卡(Billerica)做了一個開發與保護規劃(圖43)。在當時，美國正在繪制可以供大眾使用的國家資源地圖。曼寧收集了數百張關于土壤、河流、森林和其他景觀要素的地圖，將其疊在透射板上，基于這樣的方法，他做了一個全美國的景觀規劃，并發表在1923年6月的《景觀設計》雜志上(圖44)。他規劃了未來的城鎮體系、國家公園系統和休憩娛樂區系統，還規劃了我們今天所使用的主要高速公路系統和長途旅行步道系統。這個規劃包括了今天一個完整的景觀規劃所需要的所有內容，而曼寧則是在20世紀初就為全國做了這么一個規劃。因此曼寧的這個規劃可以說是我們這個專業歷史上最重要、最大膽，也是最具獨創性的規劃。
　　在這次演講的開始，我引用了杭州的例子，古人在那里創造了一個聞名于世的水景。而荷蘭則正好相反，那里的人們從15世紀開始就將水排干以獲得土地(圖45)。荷蘭擁有典型的低海拔地區景觀，其英語名稱“Netherlands”的意思就是“低地”。這個國家經常受到洪水困擾，為此他們做出了兩個關于景觀規劃的重要決定，一是要沿河流修筑堤岸，二是要填海造田。使整個國家的景觀成了這兩個決定的產物。杭州西湖的景觀雖由人作，宛若天開，而荷蘭則絲毫不掩飾其機械制造的痕跡。如果你是荷蘭的景觀設計師，你就應該學會尊重這些方格狀土地和筆直的線條(圖46)。由于這些直方格形成了高度結構化的景觀，如果加上不規整的線條或曲線型的設計就會與現狀沖突。(在中國，許多景觀是由不規則的彎曲的線條構成的，在這種情況下，直線則會突兀出來。)荷蘭對大面積新開墾土地的需要是通過機械和景觀規劃得以滿足，這樣的景觀規劃不僅要考慮社會經濟目的，同時還要考慮視覺效果的一致性。
　　1935年，美國建成了從波士頓到紐約的第一條全封閉高速公路。這條被稱為“Merritt Parkway”的專用道路是專門為提高交通效率而修建的，卻被稱作“Parkway(風景道路)”。這條道路的設計盡量與景觀相融合，不破壞周圍景觀(圖47)。整個公路中很少有橋梁，隧道也僅有一個。這條公路的設計不是由工程師，而是由景觀設計師完成的，其設計過程中不僅考慮到交通，還考慮到舒適性。因此這條公路被稱作“Parkway”，而不是被稱作高速公路。

圖43　馬薩諸塞州比勒里卡的一個開發與保護規劃圖

圖44　曼寧所作的全美景觀規劃

圖45　荷蘭將水排干以獲得土地

圖46　方格狀土地和筆直的線條

　　在20世紀20～30年代，景觀規劃的方法發生了重大變化。這場變革是由英國學者G·E·赫特金斯(G.E. Hutchings)和C·C·法格(C.C.Fagg)領導的。他們并不是景觀設計師，而只是測量師和地理學家。他們編寫磷釧D貢獻在于認識到景觀是一個由許多復雜要素相聯系而構成的系統(圖48)。如果對系統某部分進行大的變動，將不可避免地影響系統中的其他要素。景觀規劃師不能僅僅是某方面的專家，他必須擁有廣博的知識，以做出一個理想的規劃方案。
　　同時在那個年代，現代意義的規劃運動開始了。這時出現了專門為培訓規劃人員而寫的教材。如今教育系統中的學生們已經很少有人閱讀當時學生們所讀的教材。L·B·埃斯克里特(L.B.Escritt)所寫的《區域規劃(Regional Planning)》一書于1943年出版，這本書不過1cm厚。如果我的那些剛入門的學生們閱讀完此書，他們將會理解很多我所教的東西。例如他們將會學到如何疊加圖層，如何利用它有針對性地分析景觀等(圖49、50)。這些技術手段是非常簡單有效的。1947年，英國選舉產生了左翼領導的政府，開始對全國土地進行國有化管理。因為擁有用來培養規劃師的教材，英國可以迅速建立一套良好的規劃系統。

圖47　風景道路


　圖48　景觀是由許多復雜要素相聯系而構成的系統


圖49　利用疊加圖層分析景觀


圖50　圖層疊加


圖51　蓋瑞特·埃克博


圖52　州際高速公路設計圖

　　蓋瑞特·?？瞬?Garrett Eckbo，1910～2000)(圖51)是20世紀最重要的景觀設計師之一，他不僅是一位具有影響力的園林設計師，還是一位多產的作家。而對我來說，他最重要的時期是二戰后他在洛杉磯市從事住宅設計的時候。那時，他以一種特殊的對景觀的敏感進行設計工作，而且常自發改造景觀。當你看他的住宅規劃圖時，你可能會感到困惑，因為?？瞬┎⒉辉趫D紙上設計而是直接在場地上決定住宅的位置以及怎么改造景觀。他寫了一本非常不錯的書——《生活景觀(Landscape for Living)》，于1950年出版發行。其中最有意思的是第十五章，他描述了設計“從藝術走向規劃”。在這一章中，他闡述了一個重要思想，即藝術與規劃是等同的，只不過它們采用了不同的表達手段而已。
　　20世紀50年代，美國總統艾森豪威爾認為美國需要有高速公路連接各州的首府，他將州際高速公路的設計任務交給了工程師(圖52)。這個主意既有好的一面，也有不好的一面。一方面我們擁有了快速安全的筆直的高速公路，但另一方面它們卻不怎么美觀，而且經常破壞了所經過地區的景觀(圖53)。
　　J.·B.·杰克遜(J.B.Jackson，1909～1996)(圖54)，是一位曾在加利福尼亞大學伯克利分校和哈佛大學從事文化景觀研究的教授。他不是一個景觀設計師，實際上是一位景觀地理學家，并創辦了一份極具影響力的小刊物《景觀(Landscape)》。他向美國人民介紹了日常景觀的價值。當時許多景觀設計師、建筑設計師等只關注一些特殊地段，而低估了普通人日?；顒訉坝^的影響。杰克遜開始推動一場重視并保護文化景觀——具有獨特性的日常景觀的運動，如今這個運動已經具有很大的影響力(圖55)。該雜志創辦于20世紀50年代，當時的美國與今天的中國非常相似，到處發生翻天覆地的變化，但卻不注意保護工作。杰克遜從那個時候起就開始推動他的工作，但是直到1986年，美國才建立一整套系統來保護文化景觀。如果中國政府來咨詢我的話，我將會建議他們努力確定其重要文化景觀并保護它們。
　　我的老師凱文·林奇(Kevin Lynch，1918～1984)提出了一個非常重要的思想。他認為規劃師應該理解普通人認知他們周圍環境的方法。林奇就很多主題寫了大量書籍，但他第一部著作，同時也是他最重要的作品便是《城市的意象(The Image of the City)》(圖56)。規劃師第一次與普通人直接交流，以了解他們理解城市的方式。林奇曾說過，設計應該使一個城市具有更明晰的結構，以方便普通人理解。他所認為的一個好的城市應該具有一個可讓人理解的結構及意象，而且這種結構意象并非規劃師強加的，而是從那些使用者的感知中獲得的(圖57)。

圖53　高速公路經常會破壞所經過地區的景觀

圖54　J·B·杰克遜


圖55　具有獨特性的日常景觀


圖56　城市的意象


圖57　設計應該使一個城市具有更明晰的結構

　　勞倫斯·哈普林(Lawrence Halprin)(圖58)是美國最著名的景觀設計師之一。他在開始設計項目之前，首先要查看區域的景觀，并試圖理解形成這片區域的自然過程(圖59)。再通過設計來反映這個自然過程，其中一個很好的例子便是著名的濱海農場住宅開發項目(圖60)。

圖58　勞倫斯·哈普林


圖59　區域自然過程的分析


圖60　濱海農場住宅開發項目


圖61　菲利普·路易斯


圖61　菲利普·路易斯


圖63　安·L·麥克哈格


圖63　安·L·麥克哈格


圖65　不同污水排放方式下的四種可行方案

　　威斯康星州立大學的菲利普·路易斯教授(Phlip Lewis)(圖61)長久以來投身研究美國中西部的北部地區，這是一片大約有1600km²的土地。他曾為這片地區作了很多規劃，其中最著名的可能是他為威斯康星州做的公園系統規劃。他通過分析表明，沿著州內河流分布的廊道地區是最需要保護的地區(圖62)。他是第一位以環境廊道概念為核心進行景觀規劃的規劃師。
　　安·L.·麥克哈格(Ian L.McHarg.1920～2001)(圖63)寫了著名的《設計結合自然(Design with Nature)》一書，這本書可能是在景觀規劃領域最具影響力的書。在書中，他描述了自然過程如何引導土地開發。書中還包括了在不同尺度上的幾個實例。20世紀60年代，巴爾的摩市希望擴展到凡利斯地區(Valleys)做的規劃。20世紀60年代，巴爾的摩市希望擴展到凡利斯地區(圖64)。麥克哈格和他的同事們認識到有多種開發模式，于是研究了不同污水排放方式下的四種可行方案(圖65)。他們知道規劃師應該做出不只一個方案，最好可以有多個方案比較，以決定哪個是最佳方案。由于城市發展用地不能在河邊洼地，農業因此得到了保護，同時開發用地也不能在陡峭的山坡地和山頂，于是城市開發呈組團分布在緩坡地和一些高地上(圖66)。由于麥克哈格理解景觀、工程、科學和開發之間的關系，所以凡利斯規劃成為了一個杰出的景觀規劃(圖67)。
　　在20世紀60年代中期，還有另一場重要變革?；羧A德·菲舍爾(Howard Fisher 1903～1979)(圖68)發明了第一個具有實用價值的計算機圖形軟件SYMAP(圖69)。1963年他在哈佛大學建立了第一個計算機圖形學實驗室。我當時成為在該實驗室工作的第一批人員。1965年，當我剛開始任教時(圖70)，四個研究生與我一起使用計算機完成了第一個區域規劃——德爾瑪瓦(Delmarva)規劃。這個區域靠近華盛頓特區，包括了整個特拉華州以及馬里蘭州和弗吉尼亞州的一部分。這是一片非常大的區域，工作非常艱巨。我們用計算機繪制的圖紙質量并不如手繪的好，因而飽受批評，但計算機完成的分析工作則不在批評之列(圖71)。在此過程中，學生們認識到了計算機運用于景觀規劃具有的巨大潛力。

圖66　城市開發項目成組團分布在緩坡和高地上


圖67　凡利斯規劃


圖68　霍華德·菲舍爾


圖69　用計算機圖形軟件SYMAP制成的圖


圖70　1965年時的卡爾教授(左)


　圖71　用計算機完成的德爾瑪瓦規劃

　　到了1967年，我們已經具備繪制地形圖、植被圖和建筑圖的技術，我們還能用計算機畫透視圖(圖72)。然而這些圖紙再次受到批評，因為一個普通繪圖工就可以比計算機畫得更好，但我們知道計算機技術會越來越先進。在60年代后期，我和我的學生們完成了另外幾個景觀規劃研究，并出版了《城市化與變遷的系統分析模型(A Systems Analysis Model of Urbanization and Change)》。今天，我仍認為有五項內容值得認真考慮：系統、分析、模型、城市化和變遷。
　　其中的一個研究生杰克·丹杰蒙(Jack Dangermend)(圖73，右二)隨后成立公司開發出了第一個商用的計算機制圖軟件(圖74)。今天他的公司ESRI已成為該領域最大的公司。通過設計讓他人使用的軟件，丹杰蒙可能已經對景觀規劃學做出了其他教授和規劃師難以比擬的貢獻。
　　希爾維亞·克勞(Sylvia Crowe，1901～1997)(圖75)是英國最出色的景觀設計師之一。她從事景觀設計多年，擁有豐富的工作經歷，而且提出了一個重要的思想。克勞在她的職業生涯中花費了很多時間就林業為英格蘭政府作顧問。她試圖避免單一樹種以及方塊狀的種植方式。建議采用自然形態種植混交林。她寫了一份題為《林木景觀(The Landscape of Forests and Woods)》的報告。在報告中，她舉例如何從生態價值、經濟價值、娛樂價值和美學價值的角度出發進行重新造林(圖76)。
　　在20世紀70年代早期，加利福尼亞大學的R.·伯頓·利頓(R.Burton Litton)(圖77左)和美國森林管理處的愛德華·斯通(Edward Stolle)(圖77右)擬定了一項重要的新法律——國家環境政策法案(NEPA，the National Environmental Policy Act)。美國國會要求大項目必須進行環境影響評價，以評估諸如大氣、水質和生物等受到項目的影響。這其中還包括了美學評價。這項法律引發了一個重要的問題，即：如何研究環境美學質量的影響？美學評價不應成為簡單的個人意見，而應該成為系統的方法論。受這項法律影響，每個州的土地管理部門必須研究采用一定方法進行視覺影響評估。第一個完成的是美國森林管理處，在1974年，他們提出了視覺管理系統(the Visual Management System)(圖78)。土地管理部和其他機構隨后擁有了各自的視覺管理系統。雖然最后產生了幾套不同的系統，而且經常令人糊涂。但重要的是，在美國每個重要項目都進行了視覺影響評價。

圖72　計算機畫的透視圖


圖73　杰克·丹杰蒙(右二)


圖74　杰克·丹杰蒙開發的第一個商用計算機制圖軟件


 圖75　希爾維亞·克勞


圖76　林木景觀


圖77　R·伯頓·利頓(左)；愛德華·斯通(右)

　　20世紀80年代早期，理查德·福爾曼(Richard Forman)和米切爾·戈登(Michel Godron)合作完成了一本意義深遠的著作《景觀生態學(Landscape Ecology)》。整個80年代是生物學家和地學家與規劃設計師緊密合作的年代。一般來說，地學家理解景觀，同時也知道景觀可以進行改造，但他們不知道如果改造以改善景觀。而現在，景觀生態學能通過觀察空間結構幫助人們理解景觀改造的作用(圖79)。這對于景觀規劃來說是非常有用的工具。福爾曼與我的另外兩個學生合作編寫了《景觀設計和土地利用規劃中的景觀生態學原則(Landscape Ecology Principles in Landscape Architecture and Land-use Planning)》。這本書可以幫助我們從環境科學角度認識到影響景觀規劃的一些原則(圖80)。
　　1986年，美國政府第一次提出了評估鄉村歷史景觀的導則。政府認識到鄉村文化景觀應該被記錄并保護下來。現在在美國已經形成了聲勢浩大的運動，來推動認識和保護具有區域特色的景觀。這里所強調的不是具有美國特色的景觀，而是具有濃郁地方風情的景觀。
　　1993年，我組織其他五個組織的同事們通過互聯網合作完成了一個項目。這是我們第一次采用電子方式有效地共享數據、思想和方案。我們大約每四個月聚會一次共進晚餐，以保持相互間直接交往，并共同做出一些決定。從此，我的研究伙伴再也不局限于我任教的哈佛大學了。在這個項目中，我可以和俄勒岡州、內華達州和華盛頓特區的同仁們一起工作。即使參加項目的人居住很遙遠，也不再是個問題。

圖78　視覺管理系統


　圖79　對景觀空間結構進行的分析


圖80　景觀設計和土地利用規劃中的景觀生態學原則


圖81　加利福尼亞州潘德爾頓營位置圖

　圖82　六個問題構成的框架


圖83　不同方案的規劃圖

圖84　潛在影響的比較(1)

　　這個項目是一個為期三年的研究項目，研究對象是加利福尼亞州的潘德爾頓營(Camp Pendleton)，一片包括洛杉磯和圣地亞哥之間所有未開發土地的區域(圖81)。我們要研究其未來的發展情況。這個項目由我分六個問題構成的框架組織起來，這六個問題是：(1)景觀該如何描述？(2)景觀是如何運作的？(3)景觀運作是否良好？(4)景觀可以作如何改變？(5)這些變化將會產生哪些不同后果？(6)景觀是否要作改變？這六個問題中的每一個都是要解決問題和方法論的某個方面(圖82)，因此僅僅問其中的第四個問題是沒有用的，所有這些問題都必須得到回答。在這個項目中，我們采用計算機模型模擬各種不同的景觀過程，其中包括土壤、水文、火災、植被、景觀生態模式、野生動物棲息地和視覺質量等模型。我們做了幾個不同方案(圖83),利用這些模型來比較潛在的影響(圖84；圖85)。因為我們工作的對象是一個復雜的景觀，這就需要更復雜的景觀規劃方法，其結果就是最后形成更復雜的規劃(圖86)，以最好地符合實際情況。
　　我和同事們剛完成了一個位于墨西哥州和亞利桑那州的沙漠地區開發項目(圖87)。那里的濱河地區是非常重要的鳥類棲息地，而且受到國際公約的保護(圖88)。但在那里，作為重要野生動物棲息地的河流正面臨毀滅。當地居民抽取地下水使用，致使含水層水量難以維持河流水位。生物學家認為如果地下水位降低5米，樹木就會死亡，河流隨之消失。但在未來，該地區的人口數目卻將要翻一番。因此該地區面臨的一個嚴峻的問題是：“如果在不破壞河流的前提下，為新的居民們提供舒適的居住環境？”
　　我們的研究隊伍對這個復雜的問題作了深入廣泛的研究。但問題是如何來表現我們的研究成果？如何向公眾說明將要作出的抉擇能否對河流生存產生重要影響？所幸我們現在已可以利用計算機技術把分析模型與動畫聯系起來。在這個項目中，每個方案都用動畫表現，而不是采用文字或靜態畫面(圖89)。我們可以演示不同規劃決策造成的地下水位下降情況。

圖85　潛在影響的比較(2)


圖86　最終景觀規劃圖


圖87　土地利用圖


圖88　濱河地區的鳥類棲息地


圖89　采用動畫演示項目方案

　　我相信，隨著我們對所規劃的景觀有著越來越深入的理解，但政治也越來越復雜，我們作的規劃也將會變得越來越復雜。這就造成普通人既不知道我們在做什么，也不知道將來會發生什么。但如果存在潛在的危險，我們很有必要讓普通人知道這些情況，否則他們將不會做出改變以避免危險。
　　這可能是我們面臨的下一個挑戰，即我們要使一個復雜的規劃更易于讓人理解。這樣做不僅可以促進公眾參與規劃，而且還可以改善決策過程，以創造一個更平等和可持續發展的未來。
致謝
　　在此，我要特別感謝苔絲·康菲德(Tess Canfield)為本文的編輯所做的大量工作，感謝黃國平翻譯完成了該論文的中文版。我還要感謝俞孔堅教授以及北京大學景觀規劃設計中心、中國風景園林學會的同志們組織了這次講座。最后我還要向所有為本文做出貢獻的人們，以及那些我未經他們允許就引用其作品的人們表示感謝。

　　Landscape Planning:A History of Influential Ideas

　　Carl Steinitz

　　Alexander and Victoria Wiley Professor of Landscape Architecture and Planning Harvard University Graduate School of Design

　　My work as landscape planner, teacher and researcher is influenced by both European and American ideas, but part of my studies as a graduate student included Chinese and Asian culture. I know enough about the world to know that European and American ideas were not always first. Furthermore, I am not an historian. I am a landscape planner who looks toward the future. Even so, I know that most of the ideas that have shaped my work are old ideas.
　　Two years ago I decided to prepare a lecture to pay respect to people who have influenced me.I am happy to be able to share a version of this lecture.I will not include many pictures of famous projects.　For each of about thirty influential people, I will show a portrait and an illustration of an idea. Most importantly, I will summarize the central idea that motivated their work. This is, of course, a simplification. Each person produced a complex body of work, but each did one or two things that have had great influence on me, and on many others. I have included some of my own work.　This is risky, because my work should be judged by other people over time. But I have included some work in which I have had a role, because I think presenting an indication of the current state of landscape planning ideas and their application to real situations is useful.　
　　The best definition of what we do was made in 1968 by Herbert Simon in a book called The Science of Artificial.　He wrote, "Everyone designs who devises courses of action aimed at changing existing conditions into preferred ones". But scale and size matter in how we act as designers. We can work on a small project, such as a house on a difficult site, or we can work on a medium sized project, such as a new urban development or a new urban park, or we can work at a large size, for example a new city or a regional conservation strategy. Just because you can design at one size does not necessarily mean you can design at the others. I am particularly interested in the design of large landscapes of natural and cultural significance. I think small projects are important, but I think landscape planning is more important, so I will focus on examples from large landscapes.
　　My first two examples are from China during the Southern Song Dynasty. Why is the West Lake of Hangzhou (Figure 1) so important? It is important because a thousand years ago, a decision was made to design and build a large landscape that is artificial, but has become natural. It is important because it was a deliberate act to change the landscape at a large size. Too many people believe landscape planning is only conservation and reaction, but the West Lake proves that landscape planning includes action with foresight. This landscape was made for reasons of defense, water supply and agriculture. From the very beginning, it became a place of great scenic beauty and cultural importance. The West Lake landscape became the focus of art and poetry (Figure 2). This great landscape has both usefulness and spiritual character, but now it faces new issues. (Figure 3)　shows how it is presented to tourists. The view shows three fourths of the landscape is the lake itself.　But this (Figure 4) is the reality. The lake is almost overwhelmed by tourism and its location adjacent to a major city undergoing substantial growth and change.　These pressures could destroy the quality of the West Lake. So here we see a landscape designed for practical reasons and transformed over time into a cultural one that is assumed to have been an act of natural processes.　Now it must be part of a larger regional urban policy, otherwise the qualities that make it important will be lost.　The West Lake demonstrates that large purposeful landscape design was possible long before the advent of heavy machinery, and that a designed landscape can be valued as a natural and cultural resource.
　　The second example is Huang Shan. This mountain area is a symbol of diverse poetic and artistic culture(Figure 5). To my knowledge, it is the subject of the first major program for landscape conservation and protection, from perhaps 900 years ago. It is a very important idea that landscape should be protected because of its role as a symbol of a culture. Visitors should realize that they are seeing not just a beautiful mountain area, but also a cultural landscape of great national importance (Figure 6).
　　In the 16th century, the Medici were the most powerful family in Italy. They had houses in cities as well as sixteen villas in the Tuscan countryside. The Medici villas were decorated with paintings that express the idea that the landscape was the basis of the wealth of the family, and also that it was also a beautiful place (Figure 7). Over the next two or three hundred years the idea that a productive agricultural landscape was a beautiful landscape became very powerful. However, the owners of the villas were not the working farmers.　The owners did not directly create the landscape, the peasant farmers did.　Unlike the peasant farmer, the aristocracy had the leisure to recognize and enjoy the beauty of the productive landscape.　It is only for the past 100 years or so, as education and leisure have increased,　that appreciation of the beauty of the productive landscape has been shared by all kinds of people.
　　Many of the great English landscape gardeners and improvers had the same idea, that the landscape can be both productive and beautiful. A good example is Stowe, a work by Charles Bridgeman, William Kent, and Lancelot "Capability" Brown (Figure 8). The landscape was productive, with sheep, cattle and deer grazing among scattered clumps of trees.　This sort of English landscape has become idealized as a beautiful landscape, and has formed the image that has inspired much of Western landscape design (Figure 9).
　　Perhaps the most famous English landscape gardener was Humphry Repton (1752-1818) (Figure 10). For the large landscapes I am interested in, he had one very important good idea, and is associated with another, bad idea. His good idea is that each project should be described using two drawings, one of "before" (Figure 11) and one of "after" (Figure 12) the design is carried out. Reptons watercolor illustrations of his designs have flaps that fold over the areas where changes are planned. When you lift the flap, the new design appears. Repton used the only direct way to show the effect of proposed changes to the existing landscape. The second idea, the bad one, is a broad cultural idea. It comes from Burkes idea of the sublime.　"Designs that are vast only by their dimensions are always the sign of a common and low imagination. No work of art can be great, but as it deceives. To be otherwise is the prerogative of nature only".　(Figure 13)　In other words, a design must be artificial: it must deceive. And to plan a large landscape implies a lack of imagination. I do not believe that large size implies low imagination, or that design must be artificial.
　　At almost in the same time, in France, Jean Marie Morel (1728-1810)　(Figure 14) wrote his book,　"Theorie des jardins" (1776). His basic position, a very important position, was that design is managing the natural processes of the landscape. He worked on the famous landscape at Ermenonville, near Paris. This is a designed landscape (Figure 15) that respects and takes advantages of the natural processes of the site, its hydrology, vegetation, and drainage. As early as the 1770s, there was a great debate, which survives today in landscape architecture, "Are we creating artificial landscapes or managing natural processes?"
　　Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) (Figure 16) was the third President of the United States of America. He decided that the middle part of the United States should be surveyed and sub-divided by using a square grid. His aim was to encourage settlement of what is now the Midwest. In the 1780s. he needed an inexpensive way to define the boundaries of homesteads for new settlers.　His idea, that the landscape should be surveyed as a grid, was extended westward as the country grew (Figure 17). It can still be seen today by anyone who flies over the country (Figure 18). The shaping of the American landscape owes more to Jefferson than to any other individual.
　　Our German colleagues might claim that landscape planning began with Prince　Leopold III Friedrich Franz von Anhalt-Dessau (1740-1817) (Figure 19). In 1740 he inherited one of the many German principalities, and was concerned with its improvement.　England was then the most advanced and prosperous nation in the world. English literature, economics, government, and landscape were regarded as the model for most of Europe.　Prince Franz made extended visits to England to study English ways, and returned home to introduce English ideas and to remake his lands in the way of the English landscape. The landscape of Worlitz was developed between 1765 and 1817 (Figure 20).　It functioned both to educate in the advanced agricultural techniques of England, and to exemplify English liberalism: it was a didactic landscape (Figure 21).　Many learned the new social, physical, economic, governmental, and landscape ideas from the Dessau-Worlitz "Garden Kingdom".　Prince Franzs great idea was not to copy a style, but to use the landscape to teach. This is very important idea.
　　John Claudius Loudon (1783-1843), in the 1830s was the most important landscape designer in Britain. He made his reputation by designing parks and gardens for wealthy people and as a thinker and writer on landscape gardening and architecture.　Loudon had an extraordinary idea. He made a regional landscape plan for the entire region of London (Figure 22). He proposed that there should be alternating rings of city and countryside, centered on the Palace of Westminster on the River Thames. Loudon made a series of example designs that showed how a garden could be different in the middle of the city, in a suburban area or in the countryside (Figure 23).　This concentric diagram was his way of saying that people cannot live only in the city, and they cant live only in the countryside. It was the same idea as Yin and Yang.　Both are necessary. This was a very important idea in the 1830s, and it is still relevant today, for example, in Shanghai or Beijing.
　　Peter Joseph Lenne (1789-1866) (Figure 24) is undoubtedly the most famous German landscape architect. Lenne said: "Nothing can thrive without care, and the most significant things lose their work through improper handling".　To design is not enough, and to build is not enough. Without care, a landscape looses its value very fast. Lenne had an extraordinary career, which coincided with a period of political revolution. His most famous works are in Potsdam, location of the most important German royal palaces. Famous architects designed the buildings in this landscape, but Lenne made the landscape structure (Figure 25). His most important contribution was the central axis, a line about three kilometers long. Everybody else attached their projects to that line. Lenne demonstrated that if the landscape concept is clear and powerful at the beginning, it can organize enormous diversity in the future.　In 1840, Fredrich Wilhelm IV came to the throne.　Lenne submitted a plan for the improvement of Berlin and its surroundings, including the expansion of the Tiergarten.　Lenne planned for a new public park system for Berlin, along with the expansion of the city (Figure 26).　His earlier plans of 1819 and 1832 had created a peoples garden accessible to all, draining swampy parts and creating winding streams and paths within the earlier geometrical pattern of long straight allees (Figure 27).
　　Americans consider Frederick Law Olmsted (1822-1903) (Figure 28) to be the founder of landscape architecture, and it was he who first used the name.　But Olmsted was influenced by what he knew about Europe. He is perhaps most famous for the design,　with Calvert Vaux, of Central Park in New York City (Figure 29). But I consider two others of his many projects to be more important. In the 1860s, John Muir and Olmsted and other people had the idea (similar to the idea for Huang Shan 900 years before) that we should protect the most important landscapes in America. They made the studies to create Yosemite National Park, the first in the nation (Figure 30).　And today, because of the work of Olmsted and other people of that period, many important American landscapes have been well protected, such as the Yosemite (Figure 31), Yellowstone, and the Grand Canyon. The second idea associated with Olmsted is related to his work at Biltmore in North Carolina, the estate of George W. Vanderbilt, the richest person in America. This house was set in 4,100 hectares of forested mountain land (Figure 32).　Olmsted hired a young man, Gifford Pinchot, to head the Estates Department of Forestry Management. Vanderbilt, Olmsted, and Pinchot guided the earliest efforts at scientific forestry in America. They avoided monoculture and clear-cutting and practiced multiple-use of the land.　When the United States government created its Forest Service, Pinchot became its first director. He promoted two important ideas that began at Biltmore. First is research into scientific forestry, and second is the multiple use of forests: to sustain animal habitat; provide recreation; protect water and air; and also to provide wood. The Biltmore Estate forest was donated to the government to become Americas first National Forest.
　　In 1883,the landscape architect Horace W. S. Cleveland (1814-1900) had a very important idea. Cleveland was the landscape architect for the twin cities of Minneapolis and St. Paul, Minnesota, opposite each other on the Mississippi river.　At that time, the cities were small.　Cleveland convinced them to buy land to create a regional park system, long before people were living nearby (Figure 33).　Because they were planning for several decades into the future, they were able to buy the land at very low prices. Today, the Twin Cities are large, and land is costly, but they have the park system. This is an enormously important idea, but it requires investment of money far in advance. If I have one piece of advice to offer to my Chinese colleges, I will say you should try to do what Cleveland did.
　　Charles Eliot (1859-1897) (Figure 34) was a very famous landscape architect who lived in my city, Boston. At the end of 1890s, the people in Boston knew that the other cities were building important park systems, but Boston was an older city that was already built up, with little land available. So Eliot had the idea of developing an open space system from the citys leftover land, the land that nobody wanted for development. He took the wetlands, the steep areas, the rocky areas, the unsanitary parts of the city, and used them to design a park system (Figure 35). Other people, including Olmsted, transformed these areas into attractive and valued parks and recreation areas. Today, when you look at the park system of Boston, you see a park system that looks like others, but was made from useless or spoiled land (Figure 36). Eliots big idea was to get control of the land, because it could be changed into something wonderful.
　　Patrick Geddes (1854-1932) (Figure 37)was a philosopher, a biologist, and a planner. He had two big ideas. The first he called the Valley Section.(Figure 38)　As an evolutionist, and a global thinker, he was interested in the interrelationships between people, their activities, and their environment. The Valley Section diagram expressed those relationships.　The Section begins in the mountains and falls to the coast.　At the highest elevations in the mountains, it is natural and usual to find miners; in less high areas to find forests and woodmen; lower to find hunters and shepherds; still lower, peasant farmers and gardeners; and finally, along the shore, fishermen. Failure to respect these human-landscape interrelationships either doesnt work or requires too much energy and too high a risk.　Geddes traveled and practiced all over the world, especially in areas of British influence. He had a second very important idea that shaped many of the plans he made. It is expressed in the title of one of his plans, City Development: a study of parks, gardens, and culture-institutes. He believed that the primary structure of urban form is shaped by the design of parks, gardens, and culture-institutes, (Figure 39) and that industrial, commercial, and residential areas are secondary.　
　　Ebenezer Howard (1850-1928) (Figure 40), Raymond Unwin (1863-1940) (Figure 41), and others reacted against the terrible housing conditions in 19th century industrial England. In that period, for the poor and working classes, housing was overcrowded, dangerous, and polluted. Many intellectuals thought that people should not live like that.　They proposed many ideas, the most important of which was Howards Garden City concept. (Figure 42) The idea was to reduce the size and lower the density of a major city by surrounding it with a band of countryside, and relocating people to smaller new suburban towns. All the areas were to be connected by efficient public transportation. In the early 20th century, the Garden City became the most important concept for urban development in England, America, and parts of the Europe. The idea developed into a concern for efficient suburban development, and is reflected again in todays "New Urbanism".　Garden Cities are a very good idea for the people who live in suburban areas, but may also have contributed to the decline of the central city.
　　Warren H. Manning(1860-1938) worked for Frederick Law Olmsted before establishing his own practice.In about 1910, there was a very interesting development in America.　Electricity had become widespread, and light tables, initially made to simplify tracing, were invented.　In 1912, Manning made the first study that used map overlays as an analysis method, much as we do today. He laid selected maps together to produce new combinations of information, and made a plan for development and conservation in Billerica, Massachusetts. (Figure 43)　Around this time, national maps of resource-based information about the country were being produced and made available to the public. Manning collected a few hundred maps of soils, rivers and forests and other landscape elements on a light table.　By using overlays, he made a landscape plan for the entire country, which was published in Landscape Architecture in June, 1923.(Figure 44)　His plan contained a system of future urban areas and a system of national parks and recreation areas. It had all of the major highways and long distance hiking trails that we now have. It contained everything that a comprehensive regional landscape plan would have today. It is remarkable that Manning did this then, and for the entire country. It is one of the most important, boldest, bravest and most creative designs in our professional history.
　　I began with the example of Hangzhou, where a famous water landscape was created. Holland is just the opposite.　Here, water has been removed, and new land has been created beginning in the 15th century.(Figure 45) Holland is a landscape at low elevation. The name "Netherlands" means low land.　It frequently suffers great floods. Because of the flood danger, the country made two landscape planning decisions. One is to build dikes to contain rivers, and the other is to fill into the sea. The landscape of nearly the entire country is the product of these decisions. Unlike the West Lake in Hangzhou, which was built by hand and looks "natural", this landscape was built by machine, and it looks it.　It does not pretend to be anything else. If you are a landscape designer in Holland, you learn to respect flat planes and straight lines. (Figure 46)　Because the flat planes and straight lines create a highly structured landscape, a very irregular or curvaceous design can be in conflict with its setting. (In China, where much of the landscape is composed of irregular curves, it is the straight line that becomes special.)　In the Netherlands, national needs demanded the creation of large areas of new land implemented by machines, and a landscape plan which has an economic and social purpose and a congruent visual consequence.
　　In 1935, the first limited access highway in America was built between Boston and New York. The Merritt Parkway was designed for efficient transportation, but it was called a "parkway". It was designed not against the landscape, but with and on the landscape. (Figure 47) There are very few bridges and only one tunnel. It was laid out not by engineers, but by landscape architects. It is used both for transportation and for pleasure. It is important to notice that the word chosen for this road is "parkway"; not "highway", not "speedway", not "expressway", or "thruway."
　　In the 1920s and 1930s, there were important changes in the methodology of landscape planning. These changes were led by colleagues in England, like G. E. Hutchings, and C. C. Fagg, who were not landscape architects, but were surveyors and geographers. They wrote some of the first textbooks on how to make regional landscape plans. The most important new idea is the recognition that landscapes are systems, with complex elements that they are connected to each other.(Figure 48)　If you make one big change, you will inevitably change the other parts of the system. Landscape planners must have broad and complex understanding to make an effective plan. One cannot be only a specialist.
　　In the 1920s and 1930s, modern planning began. Textbooks appeared to train the people who were responsible for the bureaucracy of planning. Then, students read the　textbook, but now, in our education system, very few people read textbooks. Regional Planning by L. B. Escritt, published in 1943, is less than one centimeter thick. If my beginning students would read this book, they would know much of what I teach. For example, they would learn how to make overlays, and how use them to analyze the landscape for particular purposes. (Figure 49、50)　The techniques are simple and　effective. After electing a socialist government, in 1947 the British nationalized planning control of all land. They were able to implement a very good planning system very quickly because they had the books to teach the planners.　
　　Garrett Eckbo ( 1910-2000) (Figure 51) was one of the most important landscape architects of the 20th century,　an influential designer of gardens, and a prolific writer. For me, his most important period was when he was designing housing in Los Angeles, California after World War II. He designed with sensitivity to the landscape, but also with a willingness to change the landscape. When you look at one of his housing plans, you are likely to be confused, because Eckbo did not design in plan on paper.　He designed on the land, and while on site, made decisions on the placement of houses, and on major changes to the landscape. He wrote an excellent book called Landscape for Living, published in 1950.　The most interesting part is Chapter 15, where he describes design activities "from art to planning". In it, he makes a very important statement of an idea, that art and planning are the same thing, but they are expressed in differing techniques.　
　　In the 1950s, President Eisenhower decided that the United States needed to have limited access highways to connect all the state capitals. He gave the task of designing these Interstate highways to engineers. (Figure 52)　It was a good and a bad idea.　We have straight highways that are fast and safe.　But they are not very nice, and have often caused serious damage to the cities and landscapes through which they pass. (Figure 53)
　　J.B.Jackson (1909-1996) (Figure 54) was not a landscape architect, but he was a professor of cultural landscape studies at Berkeley and at Harvard. He was a landscape geographer, who founded the small but influential magazine called Landscape. He explained to Americans the value of their ordinary landscape. Most landscape architects, architects and designers focus on special places, and undervalue the usual activities of ordinary people in making landscape. Jackson began what now is a very powerful movement to value and to protect what we call the cultural landscape-- the ordinary landscapes that have special character. (Figure55)　He began the magazine in the 1950s, when America was doing what China is doing today. It was expanding so rapidly that it did not take time to protect things that stood in the way. Jackson began his work in 1950s, but it was not until 1986 that the United States established a system to protect the cultural landscape. If I am asked, I would advise the Chinese government to make enormous efforts to identify its important cultural landscapes, and to protect them.
　　My teacher, Kevin Lynch (1918-1984) had one very important idea. He said that planners should understand and consider the way ordinary people perceive their environment. Lynch wrote many books on many topics. His first important work, and his most important work, is The Image of the City. (Figure 56)　For the first time, interviews were done to learn how ordinary people understand the city. Lynch said that design could make the city clearer and stronger and more understandable. He assumed that a good city should have an understandable structure and image which is not an imposition by planners, but derives from the perceptions of the people who use the place. (Figure57)
　　Lawrence Halprin (Figure 58) is one of　Americas most famous landscape architects. Before he began to design a project, he first looked at the regional landscape, and tried to understand the natural process that shaped the area. (Figure 59)　He designed his projects to reflect the natural process operating in the area. His well known Sea Ranch housing development is a good example. (Figure 60)
　　Philip Lewis (Figure 61) of the University of Wisconsin has spent most of his life studying the northern part of the American Mid-West, an area roughly 1600km square. He has made many plans for this area. The most important is probably his plan for a system of parks for the State of Wisconsin. His analysis showed that the corridors along the states rivers and streams were the most important places to protect. (Figure 62)　He was the first to shape a landscape plan around the idea of environmental corridors.
　　Ian L. McHarg (1920-2001) (Figure 63) wrote Design with Nature. It is probably the single most influential book in the field of landscape planning. In it he outlines ways in which natural processes can guide development. The book includes several projects at several scales. The one that I think is most important is the Plan for the Valleys. In the 1960s, Baltimore was expected to expand into the area known as the Valleys. (Figure 64) McHarg and his colleagues recognized that there were many possible patterns of development.　They studied four alternatives shaped by differing patterns of sewers. (Figure 65) They knew that you dont make just one plan.　It is better to make several plans and compare them to help decide which is best. Development was not proposed on the bottomland, so that agriculture could be protected, and not on steep slopes or on hilltops.　Development was distributed in compact groups on the gentler slopes and uplands. (Figure 66)　McHarg understood the relationship between landscape, engineering, the sciences, and development. The Plan for the Valleys is an extremely good landscape plan. (Figure 67)
　　There was a big change in the middle of the 1960s. Howard Fisher (1903-1979) (Figure 68)invented SYMAP, the first practical and publicly available computer graphics program.(Figure 69) In 1963, he came to Harvard to set up the first laboratory for computer graphics.　I was among the first people who worked in the laboratory. In 1965, when I was a junior professor, (Figure 70 left) four graduate students and I made the first regional plan using a computer-the Delmarva Plan. We studied an area near Washington, D.C. that included the entire state of Delaware, part of Maryland, and part of Virginia.　It is a very large area, and the task was very difficult.　The maps we produced were not as good as maps that could be drawn by hand. They were criticized for their graphic quality, but not for the analysis that created them. (Figure 71)　The students understood the potential power of computers in landscape planning.
　　By 1967, we had techniques for terrain mapping, and for drawing vegetation and buildings.　We could draw perspectives using computers. (Figure 72) Again, these images were criticized because an average draughtsman could draw better than the computer. But we knew that techniques would become better and better. In the late 1960s with our students, we made several more landscape planning studies. Our work was published as A Systems Analysis Model of Urbanization and Change. Today, I still think that there are five main things to consider: system, analysis, model, urbanization, and change.
　　One of the graduate students,Jack Dangermond, (Figure 73, second from right) went on to start the company that made the first commercial computer graphic mapping program. (Figure 74)　Today his firm, ESRI, is the largest in the field. By making tools for others to use, Jack Dangermond has probably contributed far more to landscape planning than any professor or any landscape planner.
　　Sylvia Crowe (1901-1997) (Figure 75) was one of the great English landscape architects.　She had a long and varied career in landscape architecture, and was responsible for an important idea. Crowe spent much of her career advising the government of England on its forestry practices. She tried to discourage monoculture and the ugly rectilinear block planting that went with it. She advocated planting a diversity of tree species, in patterns that acknowledged the natural ground form. She wrote a report called The Landscape of Forests and Woods. In it, she gives examples of how to approach reforestation with consideration for ecology, economic production, recreation, and aesthetics. (Figure 76).
　　In the early 1970s,R.Burton Litton (Figure 77 left) of the University of California and Edward Stone (Figure 77 right) of the United States Forest Service responded to an important new American law, the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). The United States Congress required major projects to have environmental impact statements which should assess things like air and water quality, and biological impacts.　It also included aesthetic quality. The new law raised a very serious question.　How do you study environmental impact in aesthetic terms?　 It could not be simply personal opinion.It had to be a methodology. Because of the law, each Federal agency that managed land had to develop methods to assess visual impact. The first agency to produce a methodology was the United States Forest Service, which, in 1974, proposed the Visual Management System(Figure 78). The Bureau of Land Management and other agencies followed with their own versions of a visual management system. As a result, we had several different systems that were often confusing.　The important result was that, in America, every major project is evaluated for its visual impact.
　　In the early 1980s, a very influential book was written by my colleague Richard Forman and Michel Godron, titled Landscape Ecology. The decade of the 1980s was a period when biological scientists and earth scientists began to work closely with planning and design professionals. As a generalization, the earth scientists understood the landscape, and realized the landscape was likely to undergo major change, but they didnt know how to propose changes to improve the landscape. Today, landscape ecology helps to understand the effects of change by looking at the spatial structure of of a landscape in ecological terms(Figure 79). It is an enormously powerful tool in landscape planning.　 Forman and two of our students wrote a book titled Landscape Ecology Principles in Landscape Architecture and Land-use Planning. It helps us to understand the general principles from environmental science that should shape our landscape planning activities(Figure 80).
　　In 1986, for the first time, the United States government promoted guidelines for evaluating the rural historical landscape.　 The government recognized that the rural cultural landscape should be documented and protected.　There is now a large movement in United States to identify and protect these landscapes, based on regional character-- not on an American national character, but on local regional character.
　　In 1993,I organized a project with colleagues from five organizations, working over the Internet. It was the first time that we could efficiently share data, ideas and directions electronically. We met every four months or so for dinner,　to maintain personal contact and to make important group decisions..　I no longer consider my research colleagues to be limited to Harvard where I teach.　As colleagues in this project, I　worked with people in Oregon, Nevada, and Washington, D.C.　If the right person is far away, it is no longer a big problem.
　　The project was a three-year study of the future of the region of Camp Pendleton, California, an area that includes practically all the undeveloped land between Los Angles and San. Diego. (Figure 81)　The project is organized using my framework of six questions:　"1.　How should the landscape be described?　2. How does the landscape operate?　3. Is the landscape working well?　4. How might the landscape be altered?　5. What differences might the changes cause?　6. Should the landscape be changed?" These six questions each address a different aspect of the problem and the methodology.(Figure 82)　It is useless to ask only the fourth question. All the questions must be addressed. For this project, we made computer models of various landscape processes,　including models of soils, hydrology, fire, vegetation, landscape ecological pattern, wildlife habitats,　and visual quality. We made several alternative plans (Figure 83) and used the models to compare their potential impacts. (Figure 84) (Figure 85)　We were working in a complex landscape.　This required a more complex method of landscape planning.The result was a more complex plan, (Figure 86) which produces a better "fit" to reality.
　　My colleagues and I have just finished a project in an area of Mexico and Arizona where a desert landscape will be developed.(Figure 87) Its riparian zone is especially important as bird habitat, and is supposed to be protected under an international treaty. (Figure 88) In this study area, the river is at risk of destruction as a wildlife habitat.　Local residents get water by pumping it from the underground aquifer. The aquifer also supports the water level in the river.　The biologists say that if the water table drops five meters, the trees will die and the river will die. The population

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